A Case Study on Animal Testing Essay

Imagine a world where humans are taken to laboratories and tested on in a callous manner. A world where people are injected with harsh drugs and chemicals that physically and mentally harm their bodies and their life. If this scenario does not sound acceptable to act upon humans, then it surely cannot be right for animals. Right now in the world thousands of animals are experiencing this, and it most defiantly is not fair. Animal testing should be stopped because it is not only cruel, but unnecessary since there are alternative testing methods and animal rights. See more: Examples of satire in adventures of huckfinn essay The statistics of animal testing reflect the cruel and inhumane behavior that it exercises. Tests sometimes require thousands of animals and can last for one month or even an animal’s entire life. (Watson, 2009, Animal Testing p.32) The tests affect the animals in a brutal, harsh manner that could result in death. In fact 50% of all animals that are tested on end up dying. (â€Å"Pros and Cons of Animal Testing† 2013, para. 2) America is one of the countries that tests on animals most commonly. Government facilities in America that subject to animal testing are the Environmental Protection Agency, Food and Drug Administration, the Department of Transportation, National Toxicology Program, and the Department of Agriculture. But surprisingly these tests aren’t required by law in America. (Peta, â€Å"Animal Testing 101†, para. 3) Over 100 million animals suffer each year and $1 million is spent on experiments and equipment for testing. Animal testing uses 40 % of all research funding from the U.S. National Institute of Health. (Watson, 2009, Animal Testing p.9) It is necessary that the statistics of animal testing are revealed to those who have been misinformed or undereducated of the issue. The despicable methods of testing that are used presently have shown to be brutal and potent. The experiments involve the usage of rats, birds, guinea  pigs, cats, monkeys, goats, rabbits, fish, mice, and dogs. (â€Å"Vivisection†, 6th ed., p.1, 2013) The experiments are mainly for the purpose of cosmetics, medicine, household cleaners. A lethal poisoning test invented around the time of World War I—in which animals are force-fed increasing doses of a chemical until they die–is still the single most common animal test in use today. Examples of the drugs and chemicals that are used on the creatures are penicillin, morphine, and aspirin- all of which have the potential to kill the animals. The animals are burned, shocked, isolated, forcibly restrained, addicted to drugs, and receive brain damage. (Edwards, 2011, â€Å"Animal Testing†) The methods of testing are dermal penetration, eye irritancy, carcinogenicity. acute toxicity, reproductive and DEV toxicity, neurotoxity, skin corrosivity/irritation, ecotoxicity, and pyrogeniaty. (â€Å"Vivisection†, 6th ed., p.1, 2013) Also, the conditions in the laboratories are unsanitary and horrible for living. The animals are deprived of food and water, their waste is not kept after, and they are closely packed in small cages regardless of their state of health. The worst part is that the animals are given no pain killers of put under anesthesia, therefore they are forced to suffer for countless hours. This way of so-called â€Å"science† is extremely atrocious to the lives of animals, and needs to be stopped for good. The methods of animal testing that are generally used in America are unnecessary since there are alternative methods of testing. Richard Klausner, former head of the National Cancer Institute, once said, â€Å" We have cured mice of cancer for decades and it simply didn’t work in humans† (â€Å"Pros and Cons of Animal Testing† 2013, para. 5) Basically what Klausner is saying is that it is hard to fix humane issues by testing on animals. The results will usually come out as inaccurate or unreliable. The differences between a human body and an animal body are very distinct. There are animatic, metabolic, and cellular difference between the two. There are endless alternative options to replace the merciless environment of regular animal testing. Scientists can study cell cultures by using computer modeling, create artificial human skin, use â€Å"Vitro† testing, and even test on human volunteers! These new methods harm no living creatures and are becoming inc reasingly popular. (Peta, â€Å"Animal Testing 101†, para. 6) For example, the makers of botox have begun to run tests on cells in a lab dish instead of on live animals. Also, it was found that sunscreen can be tested on humans and brings results that are accurate 93% of the time. It is time to turn animal testing into a relic of the past, because better methods exist that are efficient. Lastly, animals deserve to live their lives free from suffering and exploitation. Animals’ rights are just as equal to the rights that humans possess. All animals have the ability to suffer in the same way and to the same degree that humans do. They feel pain, pleasure, fear, frustration, loneliness, and motherly love. Animals also show loyalty, and communicate with each other. (â€Å"Animal Rights Movement† 2001, Animal Rights section) Supporters of animal rights believe that animals have an inherent worth—a value completely separate from their usefulness to humans. Animals do not have a voice, so therefore, humans are their voice. Most animal rights activists stick to the idea that animals should be free to do as they please, which is not a hard task to accomplish. It is very easy to leave animals where they belong, and let them live their life naturally and without human interference. Animals should be as free as people to roam about and do their animal things unmolested and restrained by humans. So that is exactly what needs to be done. Humans need to understand that animals should have basic rights; the right to not be tortured, neglected or killed needlessly. Overall, animal testing can be described as plainly wrong. Animal testing should be stopped because it is not only cruel, but unnecessary since there are other testing options and animals have rights. Animals rarely serve as good models for the human body therefore animal experimenters are simply wasting the innocent lives of animals. The animals undergo poisoning, shocking, burning, and even death. These methods can be avoided because there are alternative options, so animal testing can be deemed as unneeded and inefficient. In conclusion, animal testing should be eliminated because it violates animals’ rights, it causes pain and suffering to the experimental animals, and other means of testing product toxicity are available.

Define Project

[pic] Topic 1: Define project What is a project? A project is the defined set of planned and managed activities carried out for a period of time — with a defined start and end date. A project is designed to yield a set of products or services as agreed with the project clients and stakeholders. It has a lifecycle which is the process by which the project is undertaken. Five features that differentiate projects from ordinary work are that they: †¢ have defined beginning and end dates †¢ have a unique purpose with specific objectives that meet the client goals and requirements within specified quality and performance criteria use resources, such as money, time, people and equipment that have been allocated to the project †¢ usually follow a planned and structured approach to meet their objectives †¢ have a primary sponsor or stakeholder who provides direction and funding. Projects can be simple and easily handled by one person or large and complex projects re quiring many resources and the specialised skills of a dedicated project manager and team. What is project management? Project management is about striving to meet specific time, cost, quality and resource objectives.At the same time it must facilitate the entire process so as to meet the needs and expectations of all people affected by project activities. Project management is about making change through the use of techniques, tools and resources that manage change throughout the life of the project. Project management involves the project manager and team applying knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to achieve the requirements of the project. It is a continuous process utilising planning, organising, monitoring and controlling in all aspects of the project to achieve external and internal objectives.It also encompasses the closure and evaluation of the project. Managing a project includes: ? identifying the requirements of the project ? establishing clear and achievable objectives ? balancing demands for quality, scope, time and cost ? adapting the specifications, plans and approach to meet the different concerns and expectations of the stakeholders ? closing and evaluating the project Below is an overview of the aspects of a project that need to be determined and developed. What to determine |What this involves | |Project scope |Identify and plan the objectives, desired outcomes, limitations and budget. | |Timeline |Determine the time within which the project is to be completed—involves | | |planning, estimating, scheduling and controlling. A schedule for the life of | | |the project is developed. |Costs |Determine the costs associated with successful projection completion. This | | |involves cost estimation and forecasting, cost budgeting, cost control and cost| | |applications. A budget is developed. | |Quality processes, systems and outcomes |Construct a quality management plan. | |Human resources |Human resources are re quired for project tasks, eg for organising resources, | | |managing staff performance and leading the project team, etc.A human resource | | |management plan is developed. | |Communications processes |Ensure all parties with an interest in the project are kept up-to-date | | |throughout the life of the project. A communications plan is constructed. | |Risks and any uncertainty with processes |Risks need to be: identified, analysed, evaluated, treated, monitored and | |or achievement |reviewed.A risk management plan is constructed. | |Goods, services or support |Identify what goods, services and support are needed and determine who will be | | |the best person (or people) to provide these. It also involves developing | | |effective interpersonal relationships and finalising any contracts or | | |understandings. The procurement needs for the project will need to be outlined. |All the elements outlined above will need to be integrated with each other in line with the process and proce dures of the organisation. This involves acknowledging and considering how the different functions within the project interrelate — as well as how the project interrelates with the organisation. The project lifecycle What is a project’s lifecycle — or the process by which it is undertaken? The phases in a project lifecycle are: †¢ Phase 1: Initiation and concept †¢ Phase 2: Planning and development †¢ Phase 3: Implementation and execution Phase 4: Finalisation and review. The Initiation and Concept Phase In the initiation phase of a project, the following needs to occur: †¢ Write a description of the project concept/background †¢ Identify stakeholders †¢ Identify project objectives †¢ Define the scope of work to be carried out †¢ Agree to the development of the broad strategy — which identifies preliminary agreed phases, milestones and deliverables †¢ Identify constraints and assumptions †¢ Develop the pre liminary budget †¢ Develop the preliminary risks assessment Develop the broad quality plan †¢ Develop a broad communications plan. |Workplace Learning Activity | |Find out about the range in the types of projects that are managed by your organisation (or one with which you are familiar). | |How do they vary in size and complexity as well as in their aims and objectives? | |Talk to your mentor or colleagues with project management experience about their projects (current or completed). |Begin with general questions such as: | |What do they see as the characteristics of a project? | |How was the project initiated? | The project manager With responsibilities spanning the entire lifecycle of the project — from its planning, implementation, monitoring and control through to its closing and evaluation — the project manager is key to the success of the project. The project manager must have the ability to: build relationships with all key stakeholders, including man agement, clients, suppliers as well as team members †¢ build and lead an effective team — this will include motivating team members (eg by reinforcing to each person that they play an important role and by being optimistic and enthusiastic) †¢ manage interpersonal relationships †¢ problem-solve and make decisions †¢ negotiate with others to meet their needs as well as those of the project †¢ empathise with clients †¢ develop a vision for the project that can be sold to the team and key stakeholders †¢ exercise a high degree of professionalism †¢ communicate with all stakeholders provide reports as required. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in setting up a project in your workplace, clarify the following: | |What is the role of the project manager? | |If you are not the project manager, what is your role within the project? | |Here is another suggestion for workplace learning: | |Interview a project manager to find out what their role was within a recently-completed project.Ask them about the: | |characteristics of a good project manager | |skills and knowledge they needed in order to function as an effective project manager. | Define project stakeholders Knowing who the stakeholders are is critical to any project. Stakeholders are individuals or organisations who have an interest in, or involvement with, the project. Stakeholders have an impact on or are affected by the project. To ensure support for a project, the stakeholders must be identified as early as possible in a project lifecycle.Project team responsibilities As the project manager, you need to clearly identify the limits of each project team member’s responsibility. Questions to ask include: †¢ What is the overall responsibility of the project manager? †¢ What is the responsibility of individual project team members? †¢ How will changes to project specifications, deliverables, scheduling, resource usage, and other aspects of the project be managed? †¢ Who is responsible for each of these? Each team member should have clearly defined responsibilities to ensure that they understand what they are—and are not—allowed to do.Otherwise one person may go off and approve changes that have not been authorised and cause the project to go in the wrong direction, go over budget, or eventually fail. Project reporting requirements When you are developing or reviewing the scope of a project, make sure to include reporting guidelines, such as when to report to the project sponsor, stakeholders and project team. (It should be on a regular basis. ) There are a few different ways to meet reporting requirements; you may need to use several of these methods together: hold project team meetings where each team member reports on the progress of the project †¢ hold a sponsor or stakeholder meetings where you report on the progress of the project †¢ provide written reports †¢ send email reports †¢ use the reporting facilities in any project management software you may be using. Reporting requirements for a project are put in place to ensure that all those involved are kept up-to-date with the project’s progress. They also provide the opportunity to report any changes or unforeseen events. This means that such things can be rectified quickly—before they get out of hand.The important thing is that everyone involved has a clear understanding of their reporting requirements, and that these requirements are met. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in setting up a project in your workplace, keep notes on the process of working with | |stakeholders. To get you started with your notes, here are some questions that you could address: | |Who are the stakeholders? | |What are the issues that need to be clarified with stakeholders? |What are the benefits of involving stakeholders? | |What are the rights and obligations o f stakeholders? If you are a project manager (or managing part of the project), what are| |your obligations to stakeholders? | Access project scope and other relevant information Before commencing a project, there is a need for you to get a good understanding of the exact objectives of the project and the scope of work required to be done in order to achieve each objective. The following will need to be understood: †¢ Why is the project being undertaken? †¢ Are there limitations that may restrict the way the project is carried out? Exactly what is expected to done (or achieved)? What is not expected to be done? †¢ Will adequate resources be available? †¢ Where and when will resources be needed? †¢ What is the cost of the project? †¢ Is the client (or organisation) comfortable with the suggested strategy for spending the project money? The project manager will also need an agreement about the support that will be given to the project. Prepare the project scope definition and scope document The project manager may be asked to prepare the scope definition and scope document or be given one to follow.The project manager is usually involved in developing the scope. The scope should be as specific as possible and tell all stakeholders exactly what is to be achieved on completion of the project. |Scope document — checklist | |The following should always be included in a scope document: | |Background — overview of project | |Objectives to be achieved — i. . both primary and secondary objectives | |Scope definition — as stated above the scope should be as specific as possible and tell all stakeholders exactly what is to| |be achieved on completion of the project | |Broad strategy for achievement of projects — phases | |Constraints around which project is to work | |Exclusions showing what work is not to be done |Assumptions and questions to be answered | |Related projects that may have an effect on yo ur project — or projects that may be affected by your project | |Preliminary budget | |Preliminary risk assessment | |Broad plans for communication and quality (may also be included). | A scope document shows the scope, or extent, of a project.Let’s look at the key sections and an example of a project scope document. [pic] The things you will find in a project scope document Key sections of a scope document |Section |Details | |Scope statement or definition |This clearly states the project goal, objectives and deliverables. If it is not | | |specified in the scope statement then it is outside the scope of the project and | | |is not relevant.Project tasks should only address work that is relevant to the | | |project goal and objectives. | |Project constraints |These are any limiting factors that prevent the project from moving in a | | |particular path. Examples include: | | |You have dependent tasks that impact on specific areas of the project, for | | |example, tasks that cannot begin unless another one has started. | |You have a deadline that cannot be changed. | | |The implementation work for a system upgrade can only be done on the weekend, | | |when staff are not at work. | |Assumptions |These are aspects that the project manager builds into the scope document to | | |allow for any uncertainties that may occur. Examples of assumptions include: | | |Fifteen new personal computers need to be purchased for the project. | |All staff need yearly training in OHS. | | |All resources for the project will be sourced from outside of the company. | |Tasks list |You need to specify a list of tasks (and deliverables) to be achieved during the | | |project. They are all the activities that need to take place to bring the project| | |to completion.The deliverables include all the documentation, reports, contracts| | |and products that need to be produced and signed-off on by those in authority. | |Estimates (cost, time and |You need to make initial estima tes in relation to cost, time and human resource | |human resources) |requirements. These identify the boundaries of the project to enable you to | | |expand into the more detailed estimates that are needed to develop the full | | |project plan. |Contract statement |This will include the names of those authorised to initiate contract work, sign | | |contracts and completion acceptances. It also includes any contractual | | |limitations and penalty statements for possible contract variations. (Variations | | |and penalties apply equally to the client and providers. ) | The following is an example of a scope document, in this case for a project to install animal litter bins in local parks. Sample scope document Project Scope | |Project Information (Please complete all) | |Project Sponsor |Project Name | |Bob Smith |Animal litter bins | |General Manager | | |Sponsoring Department/Client | |Directive from Council Meeting | |Parks & Gardens | |Project Leader | |Arens Sirkel | |Sco pe the project | |The project will encompass the installing of animal litter bins and bag dispensers in all council parks. The bins | |and bags are to be purchased from Animal Litter Limited after recommendations from neighbouring councils.The | |project is to be completed within six weeks at an all up cost not exceeding $24,000. | |Description of the project | |(What is the vision? What will the finished product look like? ) | |The animal litter bins will be installed in prominent locations in each park, while also being close to entrances | |to allow efficient removal of waste by our waste management contractor. | |Identify the strategic objectives which relate to this project | |To reduce animal litter by encouraging owners to pick up after their pets. |Identify the main target audience | |Pet owners. | |What are the intended outcomes/deliverables of the project? | |That pet owners will use the bags provided to clean up their pets’ litter and deposit the bags in the bins | |provided, other bins or their own bins at home. | |What are the particular aspects of the project? | |Installation of bins. | |Other comments | |Collection of waste and replacement of bags has been contracted to our waste management contractor. | |A public awareness campaign will be conducted by council after the bins have been installed. |Proposed project timeline | | |Dates/Time |Notes | |Project lifespan: include dates or total time | | | |required for completion | | | |Phase 1: Scoping and feasibility |not required |Directed by council, scoped| | | |by General Manager | |Phase 2: Planning |4 days | | |Phase 3: Implementation |3 weeks | | |Phase 4: Evaluation |2 days | | |Proposed budget | |Detail proposed budget or financial constraints for the project. |Overtime wages/contractor payments $ 7,000 | |Bins & posts $ 15,000 | |Materials (cement, etc) $ 2,000 | |Scope signoff | | | |This scope has been approved by: Bob Smith_____________________ Project Sponsor | | | |Depa rtment: General Manager Date_____/_____/_____ | Use the scope document during the whole project It is a good idea to revisit the scope document while the project is running, to check that the project is meeting its objectives and to make sure that activities are within its scope. During the plan phase you should use the scope document as a basis to expand into a detailed activity list of the project deliverables. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a team that is setting up a project in your workplace, keep notes on the scoping process. To | |get you started with your notes, here are questions you could address: | |What does a project scope define? | |Who was involved in identifying the scope? What tools were used to describe the scope? | |What was involved in risk management planning? | |How will the scope provide a foundation for subsequent steps in the project? | |How was it carried out? How long did the process take? |Here are other suggestions for work place learning: | |Find out about project scoping procedures in your organisation (or one you are familiar with) | |Ask your mentor or colleagues involved in project scoping if you could sit in on their scoping meetings or join the project | |scoping team. | |Speak to people in your organisation about how the scope for their projects was identified. | |Identify a small project that you could manage as part of your work — and develop a scope definition (this could come in | |useful for you later). | Seek clarification of issues related to the project and parameters With any project, there is a project sponsor (or sponsors) — a person or organisation who might be a backer or financier.A project sponsor’s role includes the ones below: †¢ provides a single point of reference regarding management decisions †¢ reports project progress to boards and top management. †¢ provides clarification of any issues related to project and project parameters. Note t hat there may also be other stakeholders, eg, the main client, funding body, or manager who may also need to be contacted for clarification at regular intervals throughout a project. |Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team in your workplace, answer the questions below.Alternatively, obtain answers to| |these questions from a project manager in your organisation (or one you are familiar with). | |Who is the project sponsor (or sponsors)? | |What are the types of issues would you need to clarify with a sponsor? | |Apart from the sponsor, are there any other stakeholders who you can approach for clarification about aspects of the project? | Clarify relationship of the project to other projects and the organisation’s objectives It is important that the project manager and team understand how the project they are working on fits in with the organisation and other related projects that may be in progress. In your workplace, you will probably fi nd that there are a number of projects that are running concurrently.They may be completely self-contained projects — with no one project having any bearing on any of the others. However, the following may also occur: †¢ Your project may need to be completed before another can begin — or vice versa (your project will not be able to begin before the other project is completed) †¢ Allocation of resources such as staff, funds and equipment, may be affected, eg there may be tools or templates developed for one project that will be used or adapted for the new project. It is good policy to establish a relationship with other project managers especially where the project they are working on has bearing on the new project. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team within in your workplace, answer these questions below. | |How does the project you are working on fit in the organisation? | |What other projects are related to this proj ect and how? | |Here is another suggestion: | |Interview a project manager to find out how they identified other projects that had a bearing on the project they have | |recently completed in the workplace. | |. | Determine and access available resources to undertake the projectThe resources that are generally utilised within projects are: †¢ people — internal staff and sometimes contractors and other staff external to the organisation †¢ tools and equipment †¢ time †¢ raw materials †¢ money. In order to identify the resources needed for a project, you will, firstly, need to determine what tasks will need to be carried out to arrive at the project outcomes. Achieving your project objectives means blending activities and tasks to be carried out with time and funds available. The ‘work breakdown structure’ (WBS) is a complete list of all the work that needs to be carried out to achieve the milestones, phases and/or objectives of the project. A WBS will allow the planning sequence of activities and tasks and where they have a dependency on other activities and tasks. From the WBS, the schedule, resources and the cost of the project will be determined. A WBS will also lead to an understanding of the overall project. A WBS can take one of two approaches — either a top-down approach or a bottom-up approach: †¢ Top-down approach — The objectives are analysed to determine the phases the project must go through as it moves towards completion. A logical break-up of phases might be on the basis of major decision points or milestones. †¢ Bottom-up approach — This approach is a reverse of the top-down approach. Tasks to meet the project objective are determined and grouped with related tasks to form activities.Activities are then grouped to form project phases in logical sequences. This allows resources, duration and dependencies to be allocated at the task level. The cost of the individual resources will need to be calculated in order to determine the overall costs and budget for the project. How long a task will take will affect the cost of the project. Once the WBS is determined, calculations can be made for each task incorporating time allotted for each task as well as the resources and staff required. A dollar value is applied to each task and the sum total becomes the budget. In the initiation phase, a preliminary budget is prepared for the resources required and this is then detailed fully in the project plan. Workplace Learning Activity | |If you are already involved in a project team in your workplace, answer the questions below. | |How were the resources identified for the project? | |What resources will be required for this project? | |What staff (and skills) is required for the project? | |How did you prepare the work breakdown structure? | |Here are other suggestions for workplace learning: | |Interview a project manager to find out how they identified the resourc es for the project they have recently completed in the| |workplace.Also ask of the project manager the questions outlined above. | |View documentation that was compiled to identify resources within a project. | More resources For a comprehensive list of current readings and websites for Topic 1 – Define Project – please see the OLS for this unit and see Additional Resources and Websites. ———————– Contents What is a project? 1 Define project stakeholders 6 Access project scope and other relevant documentation 8 Seek clarification of issues relating to the project and parameters 15 Clarify relationship of project to other projects and organisation’s objectives 16 Determine and access available resources to undertake project 18 More resources 19

Palestinian and Israeli conflict Essay

Palestinian and Israeli conflict is the famous dispute between the Palestinians and the Israelis and it’s a dispute which is ongoing and a conflict which is explosive and continuing. It is one of the most sensitive and important issue discussed (Shah, 2000). The term has been used as a reference for the same conflicts earlier phrases and this conflict is usually very wide ranging. International actions have been forced in the conflict due to violence that had resulted from the dispute. Besides the international actions, human rights and security concerns are also prompted. This conflict has a great variety of thoughts and view in the societies and highlights the deep divisions of the Palestinians and the Israelis societies. The Israelis and the Palestinians have two different religions but this religion is not the reason for the conflict, its all about the land. Both groups knew the area as Palestine which they claimed. But after the 1948-49 war this land had been divided into three parts which were the West Bank, the state of Israel and the Gaza Strip. Issue There were many issues that had occurred between the Palestinians and Israelis. The West Bank and the Gaza strip had been occupied by the Israelis. The Israelis were asked by the Palestinians to withdraw the land but the Israelis instead started to expand its settlements throughout the processes of peace and continue to do so today as well. In order to regain the Palestine for the Palestinian Arabs they demanded a tow state in the Gaza and the West Bank. The Israelis on the other hand refused to create a state as they believed that it would result in a base for the terror groups but in the final negotiations the Israelis agreed to create the state with very limited control to the Palestinians over its resources and its borders. The refugee problem was another important issue in the conflict. There were about 726000 Palestinians who were forced to leave their homes in the war that had followed in 1948 (Gelvin, 2007). The Palestinian refugees were about 4 million. The refugees were in poor conditions in the camps of Gaza and the West Bank. There was a Palestinian demand for sending the refugees back to their homes in Israel. The Israelis whereas opposed to this as they felt that there would be a majority of the Arab Palestinians and this would end the Israel being a Jewish Israeli state. To the problem of the refugees mentioned above the answer of the Palestinians was of creating riots and destroy the Israelis by violence. By violence the Palestinians got hold of many of the areas of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. And most of the population was in hold of the Palestinians. For the answer to this again the Israelis took a step which was of the Israeli Repression. They limited the flow of the Palestinian workers to Israel to prevent any terrorist activities from happening and there were strict border checks of these workers. This greatly reduced the Palestinian standard of living. Those Palestinians who did come to work were humiliated or awaited for long hours at the check points. For any of the terror attacks at the checkpoints the Israelis starting firing at vehicles as a result of which many innocent civilians were put to death. The Israelis had launched the defensive Wall in the West bank operation and started reoccupying the territories in the West bank which were under the Palestinians. There were further checkpoints made by the IDF (Israel Defense forces) and any of the towns were for long time periods kept in curfew and the disrupting daily life, education and work. The IDF had killed about 3500 Palestinians and had destroyed the Palestinian houses. The problems that the Palestinians had to go through because of the Israelis were also due to the reason that the Israelis wanted to ensure their security. Causes The Israel Palestine conflict causes are too complex. The entire area was known as the Palestine before even the Israelis entered. The place was not called Palestine at the time of the Ottoman Empire but it had been divided into separate parts which were called ‘Vilayets’ which were further subdivided into even smaller units known as the ‘Sanjaks’. This Palestine term was just used by the Muslims, Jews and Christians to just describe their likeness for that region. The place was conquered by the Europeans. This region then was named the Palestine under the British Administration ad the people there were given identity cards labeling their nationality as the Palestinians. This was the time when the conflict arose between the Palestinians and the settlers of the Zionist who had been arriving from Russia and the Eastern Europe. The European settlers had a want to build a community of the Jewish people, though Israel wasn’t created then but only the want was enough to create a conflict between the European settlers and the Palestinian Arabs (Caplan, 2009). The land that was owned by the Palestinian Arabs was taken away from them and they were evicted by the new owners of that land, the land that was brought by the European from the European Zionist funds. This entire process gave rise to a conflict which had quite violent results. The time when Israel came into place during the years 1947 and 1948, many of the Palestinian residents were forced to leave their homes and were not allowed to return to their homelands. All these people became the Palestinian refugees and their troubles were the actual root to the conflict between the Israel and the Palestinian conflict. Solution The solution to this conflict which I can think of is for the Israel to become one state under the vote democratically and populated by both the Palestinians and the Israelis. There are three reasons for me to choose this solution. Firstly, the Palestinians want to live back in their homeland and if they do they would feel satisfied and would have a feeling of achieving what they always wanted. The Palestinians always thought of getting back their country and live in their homeland. If they live with the Israelis it would make them feel optimistic about their children’s future. Their goal has always been to return to their homeland so if they would succeed in achieving their goal then they would stop violence. The second reason is that of much less violence. As the Palestinians would be heard through the voting and them participating in the affairs of the government they would not create violence and blow off people to get heard. This would result in less fear and greater safety for the Israelis. Moreover, there would be no violence for retaliation from the Israeli terrorists. Lastly, the democratic government would be fair to both the groups as it would contain both the Israelis and the Palestinians. To the citizens all the leaders would be fair if they’re elected otherwise they won’t be re-elected. For the leaders both the groups would vote and if one leader favors just one group then the other group would not vote for him. The Palestinian and Israeli leaders would have to be fair and equal no matter whatever religion they’re following (Homie, 2007). Conclusion This conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians is a very sensitive issue and the solution which I think would work is that of Israel becoming a democratic state. I believe this is the best solution as it’ll provide both the groups with a homeland and also allow them to participate in the government of their own. This can be an effective step towards peace. References Shah A. (2000). Palestine and Israel Introduction. December 20, 2000. From www. globalissues. org Homie G. (2007). A Solution to the Israeli Palestine Conflict. May 6, 2007. From www. newsflavor. com Gelvin J. L. (2007). The Israel-Palestine conflict: one hundred years of war. Edition: New. Caplan N. (2009). The Israel-Palestine conflict: contested histories. Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.

Web Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Web Communications - Essay Example The major objective to this paper is to examine and evaluate the how communication, and interaction of people is changed through the advancement of the web platform. The paper focuses on YouTube web 2.0 platform. The paper shows how the communication has changed ever since the advancement of the platform. The essay begins with giving a brief background information on YouTube. Secondly, the paper will discuss the relationship between YouTube and other web 2.0 platform. And finally, the paper will look to analyze and evaluate the how YouTube has influenced as well as caused a change to the collaboration and the communication. In the year 2005, three IT entrepreneurs came up with the YouTube1. Google Company purchased the company later in the year 2006. The company has been under the organization of Google team. The function of YouTube is simple since it only involves uploading as well as downloading the videos through YouTube. The users connect through the use of YouTube where the videos are shared through uploads and downloads. However, many videos in YouTube are not only uploaded by individuals but also large organizations and corporations use the site to pass information such as advertisements and market their products. Research shows that four billion videos are streamed form YouTube on a daily basis. In 2010, a new designed of interacting with other web 2.0 platforms was launched to ease the interaction of the YouTube with other technologies. The connection between YouTube and other platforms is quite clear in that videos are shared form YouTube to the other social networks. For instance, videos are shared form you through the use of twitter, blogs and Facebook among others. YouTube if plugged directly into the browsers making it easy to users as they try to search and find the link of YouTube in their browsers.

Wade & Wolf Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wade & Wolf Analysis - Essay Example Both Wolf and Wade focus on the impacts of globalization on the level of poverty and pay inequality in the world. Wolf is of the opinion that globalization has reduced poverty and pay inequality but Wade refutes Wolf’s statement. Wade doubts the creditability of sources upon which Wolf had based his judgment. â€Å"But recent research on where the Bank got the 1.2 billion suggests that the method for calculating the numbers is probably to understate the true numbers in poverty.† (Wade 440). Wade thinks the inequality in the field of income among countries is measured through an incorrect method. He mentions that household expenditure can aid in providing the correct picture about unequal income distribution. The difference in the household expenditure proves that the inequality in pay among various countries is on increase. He proves his stance by providing the statistics that bring forth disparity in wages. â€Å"Roughly 85 percent of world income goes to 20 percent o f the world’s population and 6 percent to 60 percent of the world’s population†. (Wade 441). He differs from Wolf’s view that globalization aids in the development of the country. But while looking at the inequalities in income distribution, Wade ignores the situation in China and India. And it is this attitude of Wade that Wolf refers to in his article; Wolf says that India and China with their enormous population cannot be overlooked while analyzing the changing trends in the field of poverty and income distribution. â€Å"But why would one want to exclude two countries that contained 60 percent of world’s poorest people two decades and still contain almost 40 percent of world’s population today?† (Wolf 442). Wolf contrasts with Wade when it comes to the contribution of India and China in narrowing the gap of inequality that has been prevailing in average income for countries all over

Wealth of nations by Adam Smith Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wealth of nations by Adam Smith - Term Paper Example Written by Adam Smith in 1776,readers of today find the book â€Å"Wealth of Nations† almost impenetrable since the language used is flowery and the terminologies are outmoding yet wander into digressions.In spite of that, this book is one of the world’s most important books because it did for economics what Newton and Darwin did for physic and biology. Adam took what seemed outdated in trade and commerce then used public policy and his wisdom to re-state all these facts into complete, fresh, and new principles that people use fruitfully centuries later (Smith, 2010). In his work, Adam outlined gross domestic product concept for measuring wealth of a nation through identification of huge gains of productivity facilitated by specialization. He recognized benefits of trade, automatic market mechanism as well as the collaborated wide and fertile resources that provided great efficiency. Consequently, it is these ideas that make the basic fabric economic science that we adh ere to up to date. This book inquires about the nature and causes of a nation’s wealth. In book one, chapter five, Adam expounds on real and nominal price of products and their prices of labor and money. In simple terms, Adam believes that every man is wealthy or poor. This status depends on the degree in which a man can afford to enjoy the conveniences, necessities, and the amusements of life. Nevertheless, after taking thorough division of labor, this degree value these fruits as a very small part with which a man’s own labor can afford to supply him. ... The real worth of a product that a man acquired and wants to tender or simply exchange it for another product is the burden that he can spare himself and impose it on others. Labor purchases whatever a man can buy with money or with products as much as what a man can possess through the sweating and troubling of his own body. Nonetheless, the availability of goods or money that a man can use to purchase a product indeed saves him toil and trouble as these goods contain quantity of certain value of labor that one can exchange for what is of the same amount at that time to obtain a value of an equal measure. At first, labor was the original purchase money paid for all things. Therefore, what originally purchased the world’s wealth is not gold or silver, but labor. Surprisingly, wealth is power. However, whoever acquires wealth or succeeds to great fortune, does not entitle him to any political power may it be military or civil. The power may perhaps afford the person both milita ry and civic power but his or her mere power possession does not necessarily convey to him or herself. In this case, this person only possess the power of immediate or direct purchasing a certain command over all the available labor or over labor produce that is in the market by then. This person’s fortune is greater or lesser according to the proportion to the extent of power that enables this person to purchase or command the quantity of other people’s produce of labor. Thus, everything’s exchangeable value must be precisely same to the extent of power, which it conveys to its owner at all times. Even though labor is the real measure of value of exchange of all commodities, it is not labor which commonly estimates the value of commodities since it is not easy to

Reconstruction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reconstruction - Essay Example This is regardless of passing of 13Th, 14Th and 15th amendments intended to grant Blacks more rights besides voting. For instance, Northerners during Lincoln’s regime felt the then incumbent president was extremely slow in effecting significant laws meant to make Blacks enjoy similar privileges like any other citizen. Therefore, they ended up pressuring the president though at his pace he was capable of seeing some plans towards Blacks’ freedom realized. However, Johnson who was his successor proved to be totally against Blacks’ freedom and the entire reconstruction process thus causing confusion besides making it less efficient. Therefore, Dubois was right when he termed efforts exhibited during reconstruction era intended to make Black men Americans citizens were â€Å"splendid failure† because racism, utter segregation and ill-treatment of Blacks continued to be the norm of the day. During then, Blacks unlike other people continued to experience utter i ll treatment from their white counterparts especially in the Southern regions. This was to the extent of not having legal protection against open vandalism subjected on them and eventually no actions put in place to bring those responsible to the book. According to New York Times, Blacks were â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.quietly endeavoring to make arrangements to dispose of their property and emigrate to States where their persons will be secure against unprovoked assault, and where their property will be protected against vandalism† (â€Å"New York Times†). This is because somehow the government of the day contributed to Blacks’ woes especially during Johnson’s era who contrary to Lincoln exhibited little interest in ensuring they were safe. Therefore, Blacks opted to relocate to the regions where they would receive fair treatment as advocated by Northerners. Relocating in this case seemed as an effective solution to their woes because Blacks during then felt u nease to report to the legal authorities any incidences of injustice fearing intimidation and victimization. Hence, theirs was a completely losing battle especially in equaling whites because the government of the day favored only the latter. Reconstruction era despite the then authorities seeming to recognize Blacks’ presence and dignity, it was hard for them to enjoy same privileges as their white counterparts. This is especially during Johnson’s regime, which was extremely opposite of what Lincoln anticipated to implement though being slow to ensure Blacks’ safety. According to Special Field Orders there were â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦400,000 acres along the Georgia and South Carolina coasts abandoned by white planters be confiscated and divided into 40 acre parcels (Mooney, 15).† Conversely, all these plans Johnson revoked them leading to immense loss of homes, crops and land besides making numerous dreams of freed slaves undergo â€Å"unexpected miscarria ge†. This incidence besides others and even hatred towards Blacks acted as sure prove African Americans during reconstruction epoch were not even near to be â€Å"true citizens†. Therefore, they were only in foreign state where the central regime pretended to care about them but in real sense openly exhibited the contrary though using laws to do so. This is evident in Litwack’s sentiments citing, â€Å"

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 82

Summary - Essay Example The issue of identifying the affected birds was complicated by the lack of manifestation in ducks which pose potential risk to humans in an area. The virus that cause the flu mutated from the original type that affected birds only to a complicated one that is unaffected by the immunity system of humans. The virus is spread when an avian strain meets a strain that is adapted to spreading the virus in mammals and the exchange can take place in the body of a person or any other animal host. In the past, the flu has killed a large number of animals with a record 40million people noted to have died from it between 1918 and 1919 and showing that it can wipe very many people within a short time with few chances of survival after infection. Some organisations have partnered to increase surveillance of the influenza because the former studies focused on humans, swine, chicken and horses. This is regardless of the high monetary demand that is posed in attempt to produce a vaccine to curb the virus, which is very harmful to the

Facebook Influence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Facebook Influence - Research Paper Example und to have an influence on the personality, as people have learnt to share the happenings of their life, their state of mind, mood swings and vent out their stress and hard feelings, without having to wait for a live audience or an opportune time. Spending time on Facebook is also found to be a way of overcoming the shyness and inhibitions posed by direct communication methods. It is a way of opening up a person’s personality, making him/her more socially overt and expressive. This is done to the extent of revealing private information, but for the widely published consequences of disclosing such data (Aral, and Walker 337-41). An analysis of the site brought forth the proposition that female users are more influenced by it and consider Facebook an essential part of their daily routine as compared to their male counterparts. The social well-being of women is influenced by the usage of Facebook, as they feel more related to their distant friends and relatives through the site. This is all the more true in case of people in single and divorced status. Another vital observation on the influence of Facebook is that it is leading to a wave of networked progression of culture, interactions and connections (Aral, and Walker 337-41). These factors are in turn making way for a certain amount of uniformity among the users, as social networking has become a vehicle for dissemination of behavioral modes and

Breast cancer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Breast cancer - Research Paper Example s who have had a history of breast cancer provided the impetus for intense interest to delve further into contemporary issues relating to breast cancer on a global scale. In this regard, the current research would touch on diverse issues that confound women’s contracting this illness such as: risk factors, recurrence rates, conservation surgery through Indian experience; pregnancy associated breast cancer; the impact of curable versus advanced cancer in West of Romania; bioengineering embryonic stem cell microenvironments for the study of breast cancer; and triple negative breast cancer cell lines; to name just a few. The research would initially start with an introduction of the topic to include the researchers’ rationale for interest in the subject and to present current statistics and relevant information on current trends and patterns on breast cancer. A historical background would be delved into, particularly how the specific area of interest emerged. Likewise, the researchers would proffer ways in which the current study would be beneficial to various professionals who are interested on the topic. The research problem is to determine the best possible way of addressing breast cancer through the review of related literature on the subject. The researchers would integrate and synthesize the relevant findings noted from at least 15 authoritative and academic studies which have been contemporarily published in peer-reviewed journals. The discussion portion would highlight innovative ways of looking into addressing issues that confound breast cancer with the aim of better understanding the dilemma, determining how others tried to attempt it, and finally how they progressed in their respective researches. The concluding portion highlights the findings and stipulates the researchers’ recommendations. As indicated, the most effective intervention or treatment does not depend on the new technological or medical breakthrough discovered but on early detection

Active Directory Benefits Essay Example for Free

Active Directory Benefits Essay Active Directory is Microsofts trademarked directory service, an integral part of the Windows 2000 architecture. Like other directory services, such as Novell Directory Services (NDS), Active Directory is a centralized and standardized system that automates network management of user data, security, and distributed resources, and enables interoperation with other directories. Active Directory is designed especially for distributed networking environments. A better representation of the network Centralization sums up my primary reason for implementing Active Directory. The Active Directory structure makes it possible for you to achieve truly centralized management of users, regardless of how big your client’s network has become. If youve worked with Windows NT before, you know that in Windows NT a domain is a completely independent entity. While its possible to create a trust relationship between domains that exist on a common network, the domains are never truly integrated with each other because there is no higher authority that manages the domains. Forests Active Directory uses domains, but rather than each domain remaining independent, you can place multiple domains in an AD forest. This brings the entire network under the control of a single domain that oversees the others. AD allows an administrator of a forest to administer multiple domains, reducing cost and complexity while providing greater security. This also can help to reduce the number of domain controller servers in the organization. User Management Active Directory forest architecture allows communication between domains and facilitates centralized user management. The users in one domain are known to the forest domain controller, improving the flexibility of user credential management. This allows much more flexibility for employees who must travel from site to site, each with its own domain. An employee in Domain A that travels to Domain B can just log in with his normal  credentials and gain access to his network resources. Organizational Units The Active Directory structure includes support for organizational units (OU) that represent business units within the organization. AD allows an administrator to delegate some amount of authority for administering organization units. For example, an AD administrator can delegate the authority to reset passwords to the administrative assistant in the Sales department OU. This relieves the network administrator and the help desk of spending time on routine tasks. Rights Management AD provides Rights Management Services to protect files and other resources from unauthorized access. Administrators grant file access and control rights for authorized users and unauthorized users are prevented from accessing those files. This is an essential feature for organizations that require higher levels of security

Macroindividual Essay Example for Free

Macroindividual Essay I need to explain the uses, problem and critically examine the uses or problems with real life examples. Question 1 Briefly explain the uses of National Income Statistics. Comparison over Time According to Vengedasalam D. and Madhavan K. (2010), national income able to state the economy’s performance whether is progressing, stagnating or deteriorating on yearly basis from national income figures. For example like Singapore, their national income has improved steadily over the years which indicate that the country have a stable economy and high in productivity. As for economies in countries such as India, China, and Bangladesh are stagnating and should take action to increase their growth and development. However countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and some African countries have deteriorated in terms of economic performance. Comparisons between Countries Ali H. (1999) stated that we can differentiate the development and developing countries through national income. According to an international organization, OECD (Organization Economic Cooperation and Development) statistic, Singapore was the 13th richest country in the world. OECD is to tackle the country performance to estimate the country is developed or still developing. Countries such as Ethiopia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and most of the Asian states are the poorer nations. Measurement the Standard of Living According to Vengedasalam D. and Madhavan K. (2010), nationwide earnings information able to help us evaluate the quality lifestyle of individuals in different nations and the individuals residing in the same nations at different times. There is a correlation between national income and standard of living because when income is high, standards of living is high; when income is low, standards of living is low. For example countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia have high national income and also high standards of living. However, as for the countries such as Ethiopia and Myanmar have low national income leads to low standards of living. Balance of Payment Ali H. (1999) stated that stability of transaction can be determine as the complete of expenses and invoices that a nation generates as result of transfer and trade worldwide with other nations. We can approximately calculate whether the nation will face lack or excess balance of transaction through the nationwide earnings data. There will be an output of forex from the nation and this will lead to disequilibrium in the complete amount of transaction if earnings paid overseas are far greater than earnings obtained overseas. National Planning According to Vengedasalam D. and Madhavan K. (2010), national planning also knows as planning of each of the countries which based on the national income statistic, the government will formulate its short term and long term economic planning. In this case, Karl E. Case and Ray C. Fair (2003) stated on the basis of present economic performance, the government will have to forecast future developments. This which if income increase, plans for the future will increase; same goes to if income decrease, plans for the future will decrease. This also important and why all the countries have to collate data on national income. Question 2 Discuss the problems involved in calculating the GNP per capita of an economy. Underground Economy OSullivan A. , Sheffrin S. M. , and Perez S. J. (2012) stated that one of the significant problems from measured GDP is so-called underground economy where transactions are not reported to official authorities. According to Lipsey (1998), some transactions are perfectly legal, but for the people do not report their income that they have generated it is because they wanted to avoid paying taxes. For example plumber who repairs pipes leakages in the toilet and only receive payment by cash which is to avoid taxes and these transactions are not recorded so they are excluded from GDP. According to Tucker I. B. (2008), some transaction such as illegal gambling, illegal drugs, illegal guns prostitution, and loan-shark are goods and services that meets every requirement for GDP but GDP does not include unreported criminals activities. Nonmarket Activities According to Lipsey (1998), dealings that do not take position in the structured industry are also being disregards by GDP. For illustrations like solutions that individuals do for themselves in their own houses because these solutions are not moved through markets; this is so GDP statisticians cannot evaluate them. Tucker I. B. (2008) stated nonmarket activities that are not transferred though the markets such as homemaker production, do-it-yourself activities, childcare services, and voluntary work. Problem of Illiteracy Vengedasalam D. and Madhavan K. 2010) stated that problem of illiteracy most happen in third world countries like Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, India, and many African nations which the people there do not know how to keep accounts of their productive activities. With this problem of illiteracy, the governments of these countries will have difficulties in getting information such as estimated value of home produced product. For example people there do not have knowledge on marketing and finance which makes them do not know the value of product they are selling. Problems of Expertise According to Vengedasalam D. nd Madhavan K. (2010), one of the major problems of developing countries is shortage of professionals. In order to measure the national income accurately, we need the professional services such as statisticians, analysts, programmers, researchers. With these professionals in the developing countries will be able to present the national income data accurately with less technical and human errors. For example if the country do not have programmer, they need to record the national income data in papers and there will be more human errors. Lack of Sophisticated Machinery Vengedasalam D. and Madhavan K. (2010) stated that technical aspect is as important as human factor. Technical aspect such as having sophisticated machinery is needed to compute data and information. For example, problems that developing countries like Indonesia and Peru are facing the problem of technical experts and technical equipment. There countries need this latest and advance machinery to compute massive volume of data. In the end, data that collected on national income need to be analyzed using sophisticated machinery regardless of which method is used. Question 3 Explain with examples whether you support its use as a measure of quality of life in a country. No, I do not support its uses as an evaluation of total well-being in a nation. The factors as follows: Problem of Illiteracy Third world countries like Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, India, and many African nation facing this problems in which the people there do not know how to keep accounts of their productive activities. For example, Memon G. R. (2007) stated Pakistan has one of the smallest expenses of details on the globe, and the smallest among nations of relative resources and public or financial conditions. With a per close relatives earnings of over $450 Pakistan has an older details amount of 49%, while both Vietnam and Local Indian native with less per close relatives earnings have details expenses of 94% and 52%, respectively (Human Development Middle, 1998). Knowledge is greater in places and in the areas of Sindh and Punjab, among the greater earnings group, and in men. Nonmarket Activities According to Shaheen S. , Sial M. H. , Awan M. S. (2011), womans option about contribution in work market is of crucial importance in determining living standard, dependency stress and saving design in homes. Women signify about half of the people in this country in Pakistan. But in Pakistan mostly females execute happens in non-market activities in the home or the informal market. In recent past women contribution in modern market activities has been increasing. Factors determining the profession of women are extremely complex. At the individual level females option to execute is topic to such factors as the availability to projects, knowledge level and skills. Underground Economy One of the problems from measured GDP is so-called underground economy where transactions are not reported to official authorities. According to Schneider F. and Enste D. H. (2000), the results from eight nations in African-american are revealed, among these, Nigeria and The red sea have the biggest subterranean financial systems with 76 % and 68 % of GDP; Mauritius has the tiniest subterranean economic system with 20 %. Implementing the forex requirement strategy, Tanzania had a subterranean economic system of 31 % (of GDP) in 1989–90, and Southern African-american, 9 % in 1989 to 1990. The position of the size the subterranean financial systems for the Africa nations is reinforced by identical results and historical proof from Pozo (1996); Lawrence Chickering and Muhamed Salahdine (1991); and Lubell (1991). Conclusion I have explained the uses and problems. I have also examined the problems with real life examples.

Behavioral economics and economic man

Behavioral economics and economic man How Behavioral Economics Rescue Economic Man From The Selfishness Behavioral economics is one single most influential and dynamic area in the current economics. Applying some insights from psychological science(s) to the economic models so as to understand better the economics decision making, the behavioral look has provided new and important ways for the economists to understand why different people make different choices that they make. The purpose of this article therefore is to explain how behavioral economics rescue the economic man from the selfishness in which he finds himself. Economic man is an imaginary perfect rational person who maximizes his/her economic welfare or being and achieves the consumer equilibrium by thinking marginally all the time. The importance of this concept is hinged in the theory of consumer behavior in which real people function such as this fictional entity (Wansink, 2006). On the other hand, economics is a group of ideas and conventions put together by different economists which they accept and use to reason along with. It is mainly a culture of doing things mainly by the economists. Behavioral economics therefore represents the transformation of such culture and it is a field of economics that study how decision-making process influences reached decisions in any organization as well as in any individual (Ainslie, 1992). Neoclassical economics postulates an economic man in any system is the main course of being economic as well as the course of being rational. This economic man is assumed to have good knowledge is different aspects of his surrounding which is not clearly complete (Wansink, 2006). This man is assumed to posses a well organized and a stable system of personal preferences and better kills of calculation on the best action to take so as to make him attain the highest benefits as compared to other people. The axioms of the consumer choices that underlie the economic man ensure that he, the economic man, is minimally rational and consistent in the choices that he makes because he always prefers more of a thing to less and he is able to efficiently allocate his low income among numerous things that he desires so as to enable him achieve a global utility maximum. In a standard welfare model, habits and culture are assumed to take a fixed position or at least change slowly during a given time period so that the cultural context of the Homo economicus/ economic man does not enter the analysis stage. The way tastes and preferences are formed is assumed to be outside the purview of economics because they are not matters of dispute (Stigler and Becker, 1977). According to Veblens (1898), an Economic man is a homogeneous (Uniform) globule of desire full of self interest. Self-interest is defined by different economists as all things that are intangible and tangible to human beings (Solow, 1993) but in practice the real meaning of utility is radically narrowed down to mean the consumption of goods in the market. Any increase in the welfare is equated to the increase in the economic output. The Economists are aware of public goods, intransitivity, Veblen effects and interdependent utilities but all these real-world phenomena are very difficult to include in the general equilibrium framework that currently dominate the economic policy recommendations (Hirsch, 1976). Different subjects explain the economic man in different terms pointing to the same meaning. For instance, biology explains the economic man as a selfish gene while regarding it as a concept that is used to explain the overall selfishness of any living thing especially man and for the direction of evolution. Richard Dawkins with his evolution theory coined this term in his book titled The Selfish Gene (Ainslie, 1992) as a notion of competition, struggle for survival/existence, natural selection and survival of the fittest in his idea of genes as self replicators. In a teleological account, evolution of the biological life is explained as being driven by these replicators, genes. The conclusion drawn here is that the successful replicators are very selfish that otherwise they would not replicate successfully. In order to protect and preserve their replication process, these genes create avenues of self-preservation in form of living things, their bodies and minds. From this type of re asoning, Dawkins (1976, p. 2) concludes that human nature cannot be anything but selfish as its very essence is composed of very selfish units in the name of genes. Later, Dawkins expanded his biological research by considering these genes as self-contained wholes things. But, as Maynard Smith states in Barlow (1991, p. 195), this Selfish Gene does not contain any new facts but rather offers a new world view. The basic to this view is the notion that competition and the virtuousness of the selfish behavior of biological units are rife in ever being. It is from this view that the biologist Ghiselin (1974, p. 247) writes concerning the species and nature that natural economy is competitive from start to the end .This can be seen in the impulses which lead an animal to sacrifice herself for another turn out to have their rationale in gaining more advantage over a third animal especially where it is in her own interest. Therefore, every organism can reasonably be expected to aid her fellow organisms yet if given full chance to act in her own interest, nothing but speed will restrain her from brutalizing, from murdering, from maiming her mate or child (Andrei, 1999). This perspective of the biological world replicates the economic perspective of human nature as being openly self-centered, rational in being consistent in choices they make and characterized by selfishness which is constrained by expediency (Frank, 1988). Strong intellectual thoughts in both economics and biology see the market economy as being full of utility-maximizing individuals without room for cooperation other than for a single individual to gain the immediate advantage over other individuals (Johnson, 2003). With the above explanation, there are three areas that tend to look at the economic man in a bid to get him out of his selfishness. These areas include the neoclassical economics, the human behavior and the behavioral economics. The criticism of these three areas against each other really explains the demerits of the economic man and the associated selfishness to each other. In the neoclassical economics, economics is the study of the way resources are allocated to their uses. In this school of thinking, economics is said to be the study which considers human behavior as a relation between alternative ends and scarce means. Virtually every neoclassical economist is a positive economist though there are a number of positive economists that are not neoclassical in nature (Harbaugh et al, 2002). Therefore, neoclassical economists consider the study of resource allocation as scientific and not a normative study. In addition, a neoclassical economist believes that free markets always bring about efficient resource allocation (Kagel Roth, 1997). With this understanding, neoclassical economists have made a number of assumptions. Depending on the definition that one can prefer, it can be said that economists are more interested in the resource allocation in nature and causes wealth of nations or perhaps something different. Irrespective of all these, all such things depend on the actions and decisions of people (Luce, 2000). Therefore, so as to get started, economists made or make some assumptions about people and about how individuals act and how they decide how to act. However, the economists have not as a rule based these assumptions on the psychological views of human minds. Rather, most of them have started from an assumption that few modern psychologists might support (Dahlquist Kirkpatrick, 2007). This assumption is that human beings/ individuals are highly rational and self-interested/ selfish. Many neoclassical economists assume that human beings make their choices in a way that gives them the best possible advantage (s) especially given the circumstances that they face. Such circumstances includes such things as the prices of the resources, goods and services available, scarce income, limited and localized technology for transforming such resources into finished goods and services, taxes imposed on them by their organizations, regulations by their governments and other objective limitations on the choices that they make. In Strict terms, neoclassical economics does not just assume that real and concrete people are rational and self-interested as it may seem. Rather, many economists assume that the economic systems work as if they consist of the rational and self-interested persons. People exists in all sorts ranging from sneaky and altruistic to smart and dumb but if the average is an individual that is rational and self-interested, then the system most definitely will act as if human beings in general were self-interested and rational (Hersh, 2002). The basis of neoclassical economics assumes that deviations from the rational self-interests are random and therefore will cancel out making the system to act as if every person is rational and self-interested. As a consequence, neoclassical economics studies the economic system that consists of rational, self-interested persons (Luce, 2000). However, it is known that there are some examples of non-self-interested behavior of human beings who for instance give to the church and who sacrifice themselves in other ways and common sense suggests that human beings are often irrational chumps. There are two very issues here to closely scrutinize. The first one is that human beings are at times altruistic. One can not avoid concluding that people sometimes act on ethical values making it hard to see how the selfishness of this majority can cancel out this self-sacrifice of many others (Kagel Roth, 1997). Therefore, people often act on non self interested values but whenever they do so they act on their own values and not of the government or some philosopher(s) or the economist that is observing (Dahlquist Kirkpatrick, 2007). This might be called a rational individualism rather than a rational self interest. What is left then is the rationality if human beings are not always self-interested. A broader neoclassical economics presumes that human beings choose things in a way that best advances their own values, altruistic or self-interested. The critics of the neoclassical economics sometimes argue that economics is an apology for self-interest. We can therefore note the behavioral approachs criticism to the neoclassical economics that man is always selfish and self centered. The behavioral approach indicates that not all people are self centered since many individuals act on behalf of other people (Harrison, 2005). This indicated that it is not true that all people are selfish. Rather, some are and it should not be generalized that all human beings are selfish to conform to the economic man. However, human behavior is not always selfish and behavioral economics rescues economic man from the selfish gene. In other words, the behavioral economics criticizes the neoclassical economics whether people are always rational or not (Luce, 2000). The neoclassical economics is at times criticized for its normative bias against human beings especially on their assumption. In this perspective, it does not lay more focus on explaining the actual economies instead of describing a utopia in which Pareto optimality applies. The assumption that human beings act rationally can be seen as ignoring very important aspects of the human behavior. Many people see the economic man to be very different from real people. Majority of the economists, even contemporary economists, have criticized the model of economic man. Neoclassical economics assumes people to be the lightning calculators of pleasures and pains, who oscillate like the homogeneous globule of desires of happiness under impulses of stimuli which shifts about an area but leaves then intact. Large organizations might come closer to the neoclassical ideal of maximizing profits but this is not necessarily seen as desirable whenever it arises at the expense of negligence of the wider social issues (Fehr Gachter, 2000). The response to this argument is that neoclassical economics is more of a descriptive statement rather than a normative one. It therefore addresses such problems with the concepts of private against those of social utility. Many critics of behavioral economics typically insist on the rationality of the economic agents. They contend that the experimentally observed behavior is not applicable to the market situations as the learning opportunities and competition ensures at a close approximation of the rational behavior. Equally, many others note that the cognitive theories like the prospect theory are models of decision making and not generalized economic behavior hence are only applicable to the sort of once-off decision problems that are presented to experiment the survey respondents. Traditional economists are very skeptical of the survey based techniques which are put to use extensively in the behavioral economics. Economists typically emphasize on the revealed preferences over the stated preferences from the survey in determining the economic value (Fehr Gachter, 2000). Experiments and surveys should be designed very carefully so as to avoid systemic biases and lack of incentive compatibility. Some economists on the other hand dismiss these criticisms claiming that the results are reproduced in various situations and nations which can lead to good theoretical insight. Behavioral economists on the other hand have incorporated these criticisms by focusing more on the field studies as compared to the than lab experiments. Some economists therefore look at this split as the fundamental schism between the experimental economics and the behavioral economics. However, prominent experimental and behavioral economists overlap some techniques and approaches in giving answers to common questions. In addition, many other proponents of the behavioral economics have taken note that neoclassical models many times fail to predict the outcomes in the real world context (Luce, 2000). Behavioral insights can therefore be used to update the neoclassical equations and the economists have noted that these revised models do not only reach similar correct predictions as the traditional models but predicts correctly some outcomes where the traditional models fail. As an economic student, I object to the fact that man is always selfish. This drives to the numerous criticisms of the economic man. Criticisms of this notion that human beings are purely selfish go back to the start of the modern utility theory. Edgeworth (1881), for instance, in his theory of exchange included the term accounting for pure altruism. He stated that people might suppose that an object X with own utility is P tends, in a reflective and calm moment, to maximize his/her benefits from P to P+, where the + is a coefficient of effective sympathy. Equally, Mr. Veblen (1898) criticized the neoclassical concept of human beings as coldly calculating and coolly rational and this is still one most insightful literature among the criticisms of neoclassical theories (Ainslie, 1992). The other early, though neglected, criticism is that of Mr. Georgescu (1954) who stated that the individual utility not only depends on the individual well-being but also the communitys well-being to wh ich the individuals belong. This truly indicates that human beings are not egocentric and self centered but also works for the benefit of the society in which such a person comes from. Many other economists as well as just writers investigating the behavior of the human beings have come up with more criticisms while explaining the behavior of human beings. For instance, Frank (1988) and Hirsch (1976) all emphasized on the social nature of human beings and their decision-making process which is always associated with their behavior. It is true that that a big number of economic models have been developed to give explanation about altruism, charity, bequests and benevolence among human beings and how they exercise them. In doing all these, many economists together with many other social scientists have been quite ingenious in finding the explanations for the intentions for such behavior in self-interest among human beings. The possible selfish motivations or intentions that apparently lead to altruistic behavior include the enlightened self-interest, the pursuit of reputation among people, anticipation of reciprocity from other people and fear inherent in human being s that they will lose whatever little they have and as a consequence they will be faced with shame (Henrich, Henrich, 2008). Further, different explanations indicate that personal utility can be derived from one persons satisfaction or his contribution to it together with the benefits that adherence to the social contract may provide. The motives of altruistic behavior among human being however can be studied in different categories. For instance, from a psychological point of view, two egoistic motives for altruistic behavior can be identified. The first category is based on the social learning and enforcement amongst people while the second category is based on arousal reduction (Fehr Gachter, 2000). However, the theoretical and empirical investigation to the existence of altruism, different economists argue that altruism can also arise from peoples empathic emotions towards others. In some occasions an individual takes the perspective and position of another person that he/she perceives to be in need without feeling distress and helps to reduce his/her need. Given this explanation, one can conclude from numerous similar examples of altruistic behavior on which human behavior is based that moral commitments and economic factors shape each other and evolve and change within a given social environment and structu res (Arnsperger Varoufakis, 2005). Having explained this, one can forget that neoclassical theories insist on the fact that human beings have the selfish gene dominant in its system. This is the one hat is responsible for the selfishness in the economic man. However, there are a number of criticisms of this argument mainly based on the behavioral economics exercise. The selfish gene, just like the economic man, has also come under attack from numerous directions in general. The selfish gene together with its extension known as the extended phenotype has for a long time been criticized based on the fact that phenotype-distinction is not as clear as its proposers supposes. According to the explanations by the extended phenotype ideas, changes in the genes are reflected in the phenotypes and phenotypical effects determines the selection of genetic replicators (Henrich, Henrich, 2008). Therefore, the phenotypical effects preserve or replicate themselves by means of their extended phenotypes. These phenotypical effects may be morphological or behavioral. For example, a phenotypic expression of the beaver genes is the dam it builds. However, the phenotypical transformations are not exclusively triggered or induced by the changes of the genetic replicators but can as well result from the changes in the elements of the environment (Rabin, Loewenstein, Camerer 2003). On a very close examination and scrutiny, the proponents of the selfish gene idea are not dogmatic enough as popularly believed by many people especially the economists. Some people argue that higher properties of life are emergent in virtually all situations. In addition, it is argued that the accepted explanations of causality from genes to culture just the same as from genes to any other products of life, are not heredity alone. Equally, they are not environmental alone. It is mainly the interaction between the two. Therefore, all possible expressions of phenotype are always encoded in genes though particular attributes which express themselves depends on the triggers from the surrounding environment (Dasgupta, 2002). These phenotypic expressions may as well depend on how an individual integrates within a group. The controversy over the selfish gene is very important to the economists and economics in general because of its implication that competition is of much more complicated sort as compared to that which is assumed by the economic man (Fehr Gachter, 2000). This competition is much more complicated as compared to the isolated people competing for the immediate gain. Likewise, cooperation is complicated as compared to a simple tit-for-tat strategy. Not only does the economic mans model fail the test of realism but also fails to offer accurate predictions about the human behavior. Such failures are evident in the recent empirical findings by numerous economists. In the standard theory, the economic man as described by neoclassical economics lead to micro-foundations approach to the economic policy. Macro economies are assumed to operate by the similar rules of constrained optimization which are used to describe individual organizations as well as households together with their people (Varoufakis Hargreaves-Heap, 2004). Normally, a representative human being whose behavior is indicated and outlined by a well-behaved utility function and a representative organization outlined by a well-behaved production function are made use of to model some real-world phenomenon such as the global climate change or foreign trade. Without the assumptions of economic man and perfect competition such optimization models cannot reach a unique and stable equilibrium. Neoclassical models assume a strictly rational behavior in human consumption with constant returns in production and rely on the prices to dynamically adjust demand and supply. In relation to behavioral economics, the existence of pure altruism and other forms of pro-social behaviors has much more implications to the economic policy. The first policy implication is that the impersonal markets are not and not anticipated to be the best vehicles for the expression of human preferences (Fehr Gachter, 2000). Whenever economic decisions do not conform or tally with the axioms of consumer choices, market outcomes are not rational and therefore, there is no any reason to believe that a competitive equilibrium can represent social optimum. In as much as the market restricts choices to individuals then such choices exclude the richness of human behavior (Thaler, 1991). Equally, depending on who among peoples ancestors is considered human, people have been making decisions for many years based on personal interactions, direct negotiations and imposition of rewards and punishments so as to facilitate cooperation. It is however true that people have difficulties in ma king social decisions especially in impersonal markets (Frank, 1988). Even then, the prevailing trend is toward pushing more critical decisions into the market framework. In conclusion, behavioral economics rescues the economic man from the notion that he is selfish. It is true that human being s are always pursuing their self interests and goals given their human nature, but it not true that they are totally engulfed in their selfishness (Wansink, 2006). The neoclassical economics theories explain well about the economic man and his interests but it should not be generalized that human beings are selfish beings ever in the world (Fehr, E. Gachter, 2000). Human behaviors rescue man from the aforesaid selfishness because thee are many other human beings that sacrifice themselves to support other people in their society. This takes them out of the selfness that the neoclassical economics advocate. Human behavior is therefore not always selfish as is can be portrayed by the neoclassical economics (Harbaugh et al, 2002). Many people have been influenced by religion and molded in a way that they value human life and fellow human beings to an extent that even if they are seeking self interests, they go out of their way to help others achieve they needs. For instance, doctors world over might have their intrinsic desire to posses a lot of money but they always help their patients to gain their health so as to continue working for their good. Equally, different countries can only prosper if every person or at least majority of the citizens works for the good of their nation rather than working for their own gain. Should such happen, that nation is doomed to be poor. Therefore, human behavior explained in behavioral economics plays a great role in rescuing the economic man from the selfish gene. References Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics, London: Cambridge University Press Arnsperger, C., Varoufakis Y. (2005). Most Peculiar Failure: How neoclassical economics turn theoretical failure into academic and political power. Erkenntnis, 59, 157-188. Rabin, M., Loewenstein, G., Camerer, C. (2003). Advances in the Behavioral Economics, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Dasgupta, P. (2002). Modern Economics and its Critics: Models, Realism and Social Construction, London: Cambridge University Press Faruk, G. (2008). The Behavioral economics and the game theory. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Fehr, E. Gachter, S. (2000). Fairness and Retaliation: Economics of reciprocity. The Journal of the Economic Perspectives, 14, 159 p. 81. Harbaugh, W., Krause, K. Liday, G. (2002). Bargaining by children. Unpublished manuscript: University of Oregon Varoufakis, Y. Hargreaves-Heap, S. (2004). Game Theory: A critical text, London and New York: Routledge Harrison, W. (2005). Advances in Behavioral Economics. Journal of Economic Psychology, 25, 793-795. Henrich, S., Henrich, J. (2008). The Culture and Evolutionary Origin of Cooperation: Kinship, Reciprocity and Ethnicity. London: Oxford University Press Johnson, A. (2003). The Families of a forest: Matsigenka Indians of the Peruvian Amazon. California: University of California. Kagel, H., Roth, E., eds. (1997). The handbook of the experimental economics. New Jersey: Princeton U. P Dahlquist, J., Kirkpatrick, C. (2007). A Complete Resource for the Market Technicians. pp.49 Luce, R. (2000). The Utility of Losses and Gains: Measurement-theoretical and Experimental Approaches. New Jersey: Lawrence Publishers. Hersh, S. (2002). Beyond Fear and Greed: Understanding the behavioral finance and the psychology of investing. London: Oxford University Press Andrei, S. (1999). Inefficient Markets: Introduction to Behavioral Finance. London: Oxford University Press. Smith, V. (2002). The Method in Experiment: A Rhetoric and Reality. Experimental Economics, 5, 91-110. Varoufakis, Y. (1998). Foundations of Economics: A beginners companion, London and New York: Routledge publishers Edgeworth, Y. (1881). Mathematical Psychics. London: L.S.E. Reprint 1934 publishers. Frank, R. (1988). The Passions within Reasons: The Strategic Role of Emotions. New York: Norton Publishers Hirsch, F. (1976). Social Limit to Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Thaler, H. (1991). Quasi Rational Economics. New York: Russell Sage Publishers Foundation. Wansink, B. (2006). A process of Mindless Eating: Why people eat more than they think. New York: Bantam Books publishers

Charles Dickens Great Expectations Essay -- Great Expectations Essays

Great Expectations As part of my GCSE coursework I have been asked to analyse the novel ‘Great Expectations’ by Charles Dickens and show how Dickens creates sympathy towards the young character Pip in the extract. Dickens starts the extract by revealing the gloomy and oppressive atmosphere in the residence of Miss Havisham. When Pip arrives at the house of Miss Havisham there is an atmosphere of gloominess which creates sympathy for Pip. ‘No glimpse of daylight was to be seen in it’. Pip feels very insecure because he is a young boy in a strange and unfamiliar environment. He is moreover now in the presence of upper class. This also creates sympathy because Pip is from the lower classes and must face the difficulties to unfold with Estella and Miss Havisham. Everything in the house is covered in dust and all the clocks have stopped. Miss Havisham, the upper class lady of the house is dressed in ‘satins, and lace, and silks - all of white’. Everything in this house was once white a long, long time ago but ‘had lost its lustre, and was faded and yellow’. This image of Miss Havisha... Charles Dickens' Great Expectations Essay -- Great Expectations Essays Great Expectations As part of my GCSE coursework I have been asked to analyse the novel ‘Great Expectations’ by Charles Dickens and show how Dickens creates sympathy towards the young character Pip in the extract. Dickens starts the extract by revealing the gloomy and oppressive atmosphere in the residence of Miss Havisham. When Pip arrives at the house of Miss Havisham there is an atmosphere of gloominess which creates sympathy for Pip. ‘No glimpse of daylight was to be seen in it’. Pip feels very insecure because he is a young boy in a strange and unfamiliar environment. He is moreover now in the presence of upper class. This also creates sympathy because Pip is from the lower classes and must face the difficulties to unfold with Estella and Miss Havisham. Everything in the house is covered in dust and all the clocks have stopped. Miss Havisham, the upper class lady of the house is dressed in ‘satins, and lace, and silks - all of white’. Everything in this house was once white a long, long time ago but ‘had lost its lustre, and was faded and yellow’. This image of Miss Havisha...

George Wallace :: essays papers

George Wallace Former Gov. George C. Wallace of Alabama, who built his political career on segregation and spent a tormented retirement arguing that he was not a racist in his heart, died Sunday night at Jackson Hospital in Montgomery. He was 79 and lived in Montgomery, Ala. Wallace died of respiratory and cardiac arrest at 9:49 p.m., said Dana Beyerly, a spokeswoman for Jackson Hospital in Montgomery. Wallace had been in declining health since being shot in his 1972 presidential campaign by a 21-year-old drifter named Arthur Bremer. Wallace, a Democrat who was a longtime champion of states' rights, dominated his own state for almost a generation. But his wish was to be remembered as a man who might have been president and whose campaigns for that office in 1968, 1972 and 1976 established political trends that have dominated American politics for the last quarter of the 20th century. He believed that his underdog campaigns made it possible for two other Southerners, Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton, to be taken seriously as presidential candidates. He also argued ceaselessly that his theme of middle-class empowerment was borrowed by Richard Nixon in 1968 and then grabbed by another Californian, Ronald Reagan, as the spine of his triumphant populist conservatism. In interviews later in his life, Wallace was always less keen to talk about his other major role in Southern history. After being elected to his first term as governor in 1962, he became the foil for the huge protests that the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. used to destroy segregation in public accommodations in 1963 and to secure voting rights for blacks in 1965. As a young man, Wallace came boiling out of the sun-stricken, Rebel-haunted reaches of southeast Alabama to win the governorship on his second try. He became the only Alabamian ever sworn in for four terms as governor, winning elections in 1962, 1970, 1974 and 1982. He retired at the end of his last term in January 1987. So great was his sway over Alabama that by the time he had been in office only two years, other candidates literally begged him for permission to put his slogan, "Stand Up for Alabama," on their billboards. Sens. John Sparkman and Lister Hill, New Deal veterans who were powers in Washington and the national Democratic Party, feared to contradict him in public when he vowed to plunge the state into unrelenting confrontation with the federal government over the integration of schools, buses, restrooms and public places in Alabama. It was a power built entirely on his promise to Alabama's white voting